PDP4 - Communist Manifesto

PDP4 - Communist Manifesto

Author Bios: Karl Marx was a Prussian-born philosopher, journalist, and social reformer. He intensively studied capitalism and had some rather revolutionary ideas about the system. He worked with Friedrich Engels to write and publish the Communist Manifesto in 1848.
Friedrich Engels was from Germany, and was also a philosopher and journalist. He founded Marxism with Marx and helped finance some of Marx's work. Both of these men, in the Manifesto, clearly show their bias with how they generalize the conflicts of history and people who support capitalism.

Date/Context: As I stated before, the Manifesto was published in the mid-1800s. What probably most influenced this document was the thriving Industrial Revolution. The Revolution produced more jobs in factories and on farms, as well as more slaves, with more power and money going to the people controlling these workers. In addition, with this being post-Enlightenment, people were more likely to think critically about what they encountered. In this context it seems plausible that people like Marx and Engels would perceive there to be flaws in the system.

Summary: The Manifesto essentially talks about the main ideas and theories of Communism, and the reasoning behind them. The most stressed point is the elimination of private property. Marx and Engels argue that the private property system allowed the bourgeoisie to exploit the proletariat (the lower working class) and take away their individuality. They point out that, because of this, private property already seems almost nonexistent for the vast majority of the population. They emphasize restoring power and meaning to the proletariat, which meant doing away with the middle class. They also talk about women and how their role in bourgeois society is little more than a means of production. Marx and Engels say that Communism would create a more open, legalized community for women, which would also eliminate prostitution and the like.

Key Quotation: "The immediate aim of the Communists is the...formation of the proletariat into a class, overthrow of the bourgeois supremacy, conquest of political power by the proletariat."

SJS4- "Working-Class Resilience in Russia"

Source: Morris, Jeremy. “Working-Class Resilience in Russia” Current History, vol. 115, no. 783, Oct. 2016, pp. 264-269

Author Credentials: Jeremy Morris is qualified to discuss this issue because he studied modern history at Balliol College, Oxford. He remained at Oxford for his post-graduate study and obtained his Doctor of Philosophy degree.

Summary: This summary discusses the working-class peoples of Russia and how they are not able to rely on the state, and their need for informal social networks in order to survive. The economic shift to a system resembling a market capitalism was put in place stripping some blue-collar workers of full employment, secure jobs, and benefits. Many factory employees in the 1990s were owed money to that many enterprises could not pay to them due to the rise of inflation. Quality of blue-collar jobs increased in 2009 until the economic crisis in Russia in 2014. The post Soviet transition left a large amount of job instability in Russia and it is often blamed on the rapid globalization. It then goes on to discuss monotowns and how they are industrial towns usually specializing in collecting raw materials. These towns are usually run by a company which provides the housing and other amenities such as health care. The Pikalevo monotown protested over low wages in a region blocking a main highway, but they were threatened by a key military monotown that was coerced into doing so by the state. Workers do not have a regional location identity in Russia but an enterprise identity and will relocate in order to keep working. Russian workers are self- reliant and are protected against destitution because of the informal economy. This style of work includes both skilled and unskilled work in construction, small trade, and other means of work available which goes undetected by tax authorities and is tolerated. In conclusion, the working class in Russia will continue to persevere and will overcome any obstacle put in front of them by the state.

Analysis: The author makes a strong argument discussing the working class of Russia. He provides sufficient evidence to support this argument by including examples of what the working class has gone through, such as their economic shift and job instability. He also includes many ways they overcome these obstacles such as the informal market and the jobs they get their. He is not biased and gives facts about what had happened to the economy in Russia as well as including questionable aspects of the government without inputting any opinion. The author is reliable because he obtained his Doctor of Philosophy degree at Oxford University.

SJS4- "The New Middle East Will Test Europe"

Source: Serfaty, Simon. "The New Middle East Will Test Europe." Current History, vol. 
     111, no. 743, Mar. 2012, pp. 118-19. 
Author Credentials: Simon Serfaty is a qualified author to discuss this topic as he has an extensive background in international and European studies. He earned a PhD in political science from John Hopkins University and is the Senior Adviser of Europe Program of Center for Strategic and International Studies. Serfaty also was the Director of the Europe Program at CSIS and First Holder of the Zbigniew Brzezinski Chair in Global Security and Geostrategy at CSIS. With that, he has taught and lectured many people about his field.

Summary: The article, in summary, discusses how the Middle East and its governments are starting to change, more headed towards democracies, but places like Europe and America are not necessarily ready for those changes. First, the author brings up how Europe is not in a position to support some Middle Eastern countries at the time because Europe itself is not as cohesive and in the best financial situation as it could. Also, Europe sometimes waits for a reaction from the United States first, which might not happen as the US is indecisive about their policies and actions. Surfaty then goes on to explain some roadblocks that Europe faces when Middle Eastern countries start to go through the process, like Europe lacking military strength, EU cohesion, and money to support these movements. Finally, the author goes to talk about the shocks of these turns of government. One major country that he points out is Iran, which has nuclear powers but Europe clashing with the country would not only end poorly battle wise but also the change in oil distribution will shake economic stability. In conclusion, the author weighs possibilities, situations, and consequences of Europe getting involved with the Middle East and its dramatic changes.

Analysis: Overall, the author did a quality job presenting the argument and using many current situations to back up his analysis. Although not many hard facts with numbers are present, the multiple different examples of countries and events that happened show the knowledge of the topic. As there was little to no opinion, the article and author are reliable sources not only for that but having an extensive background in the field of topic for this article as well.

PDP4- "The Prince"

Author Bio: Niccolo Machiavelli lived during the Italian Renaissance, working and fighting mainly against the powerful Medici family. After being put in jail, tortured, and exiled for going against the family after they won the war, Machiavelli wrote a book called "The Prince" to try and earn back their approval, which didn't work. The book, because wanting to impress Lorenzo de Medici, was straightforward in what Machiavelli thought were the best tips for a "prince" in his situation, with little bias towards leaning away from that type of government and more towards a republic.

Data/Context: The document fits into the understanding of history and culture because it is in the middle of a time where Italy was divided into city-states and politics and morals blended together. Machiavelli was one of the first people to separate politics, saying that it is not about people liking a person, but about power and no morals. At the time, this was very controversial as no one saw it as true, but progressing into modern times more people identify with his statements and agree that those characteristics are becoming more prominent.

Summary: The main idea of the document is that the "prince" or ruler of an empire or kingdom is going to face many hard decisions, and that ultimately in politics the goal is to gain power and not favor. In the first section, Machiavelli discusses how a prince should live with the goal of getting the most benefit instead of living constantly by good morals. In the next section, he talks about if a ruler would rather be feared or loved, citing successful people who were cruel, but achieved great gain for their territories. In general, Machiavelli believes that it is better to be feared because people will be less likely to turn on that person. Finally, he touches on how faithful princes should be in keeping their word, making comparisons to foxes and lions as one is cunning and deceitful while the other is strong in defending themselves from wolves. Machiavelli points out that a prince should be both, so that he will not be fooled or attacked. He then connects it to being good all the time, and how a prince usually needs to keep being good and honest in the back of his mind, while also being able to use the evil when needed.

Key quotation: "Nevertheless, the prince must make himself feared in such a way that, although he does not acquire love, he avoids hatred..."

PDP4 - Declaration of the Rights of Man & Citizen

PDP4- Declaration of the Rights of Man & Citizen

Author Bio:  The authors of The Declaration of the Rights of Man was written by the assembly of representatives of the French people, in 1789. Their bias would be to provide more writes to the people, and keep the community happy and with a say in their government. They wanted to keep the government in check to make sure they're not missing out on any of their humanly rights. 

Date/Context: This article was written at the beginning of the French Revolution, so I imagine they were trying to settle the peace, and allow for the French people to get more say in their government. After seeing how the American government was set up, and how the people had a lot of freedom, the French would also want this. 

Summary: The main idea of this document is about the French people gaining more rights, and freedom. But also not being unfairly convicted, or segregated based on anything. It is a lot like the Constitution of America. For instance, in the first and second articles it is talking about how all men are created equal, and everyone has the same rights, and no one should be impressed. This reflects the constitution which was published not long before this one. This Declaration is trying to uncorrupt the government, and allow people to have their rights and duties as a citizen. 

Key Quotation:  "...believing that the ignorance, neglect, or contempt of the rights of man are the sole cause of public calamities and of the corruption of governments, have determined to set forth in a solemn declaration the natural, unalienable, and sacred rights of man..."

SJS4 - "Germany Rethinks Its Role in the World"

Source:
Kundnani, Hans. “Germany Rethinks Its Role in the World.” Current History, vol. 114, no. 770, Mar. 2015, pp. 115-17.

Author Credentials: 
Hans Kundnani is a Senior Transatlantic Fellow for the Europe Program in Washington, DC. He specializes in European Foreign Policy, UK - EU Relations, German Politics and History, and Transatlantic Relations.

Summary: 
In general, this article spoke about how Germany's role in the world is changing through Germany's decisions. To begin with, Germany began by changing its foreign policy and started to move towards protecting the EU as a whole, not just Germany. Though this is one of the main goals within foreign policy, it has shown little progress because of the amount of time it will take. At the same time, Germany has been reluctant to use military force, and instead has started using more pf its economic power. Economic power uses specific objectives while military force might not be so precise. Simultaneously, Germany is skeptical of military power and therefore has not been funding its military as much as it used to, something that could be dangerous in the future. In short, each step Germany takes toward change impacts the end result. 

Analysis: 
Overall, I thunk that the author makes a strong argument because of the evidence provided. He restates details to ensure his point is understood and distinguishes between fact and opinion for the most part. I believe he is a reliable source. 

SJS3- “The Ruba'iyat”

Source- Wehrey, Frederic. “The Saudi Thermidor.” Current History, vol. 113, no. 767, Dec. 2014, pp. 344-49.

Author Credentials- Frederic Wehrey is an American scholar of Middle East per affairs. He also is knowedgable on the Libyan and Gulf politics. Whrey is also a Senior Associate at the Middle East Program at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and earned his PhD from Oxford University.

Summary- This journal mainly focuses on the threats of ISIS and al-Queda and also relations between different countries. Saudi Arabia has a fence stretching across its border with multiple layers and the intent to keep out the jihadist threat from al-Queda and ISIS. The United States and Saudi Arabia had a untrusting relationship since the there was talk of a US nuclear deal. However, Saudi Arabia and the United States came back together in September 2014 to perform airs strikes on ISIS. The threat of ISIS was growing stronger throughout 2014 and more antiterrorism groups were forming. Saudi-Iranian relations became stronger because of the threat of ISIS along with the US-Iranian relations. In Egypt, Riyadh was attempting to contain Iran and the Iranian threat. Egypt and the United States relations were shaky and Egypt believed the the US was going to retreat from the deal and stop helping them so Riyadh attempted to forge a more unified Gulf Coast.

Analysis- Overall, I think that the journal was very well written. It included a lot of detail and views on different relations between nations. One thing I think that Wehrey could have done was included more about the views and stands against ISIS.

PDP 1-Denouncement of the Proposal for a Canal User's Association, 1956

Author Bio- Gamel Abdel Nasser was born and died in Egypt. He was an army officer, Prime Minister, and President all in Egypt. As President he became the controversial leader of the Arab world which created the United Arab Republic, which only lasted for a short period of time.

Date/Context- The document demonstrates how the larger, more powerful countries would take advantage of the smaller countries which is what we discussed in class. Egypt was being controlled by higher powers and was not receiving what they were promised, the President of Egypt wanted to stand up for Egypt’s sovereignty against the United States and France who were violating the 1888 convention.

Summary- This document is a speech that was given by Gamel Abdel Nasser, the President of Egypt, it was given in 1956. The speech was about smaller nations standing up for their rights. To be specific, the United States and France were violating the 1888 convention, and not giving Egypt what was promised to them. Gamel Abdel Nasser was talking about preserving Egypt's sovereignty and encouraging other small to do the same. The issue being discussed is about the Suez Canal which was supposed to have no discrimination and be free to all navigation. The Suez Canal company opened up and was an Egyptian company. Britain and France said that Egypt grabbed the Suez Canal even though the company declared that freedom of navigation would be preserved. Britain and France acted as though it was their Canal and their property although it was not. Egyptians rallied Arabs and even free people and stood up for their property and against tyranny.

Key Quotation- “In these decisive days in the history of mankind, these days in which truth struggles to have itself recognized in international chaos where powers of evil domination and imperialism have prevailed, Egypt stands firmly to preserve her sovereignty.”

PDP3 - The Uprising of Khurdad 15, 1979

Author Bio: Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini was the former Supreme Leader of Iran. He also was a Shia Muslim religious leader and hoped to remove the Shah from power. Khomeini was arrested several times for speaking out in what he believed in. Khomeini also founded the Islamic Republic of Iran and lead the 1979 Iranian Revolution.

Date/Context: This document fits into our understanding of history and culture because it talks about how Muslims played the key role in overthrowing the Shah. It also talks about many of the Western influences in the Middle East, specifically Iran.

Summary: In summary, this document discusses the importance of Muslims, as well as everything achieved in Iran was through Islam means. Khomeini stresses that non-Islamic people did not play a role, and if one tries to look for a non-Islamic person that did, no one will be found. Khomeini then goes on to talk about Western influences. He says that the Westerners do not care about human rights, instead they care about having power. He uses this claim to say that Islam is the only religion that cares about humanity. Lastly, Khomeini concludes by stating that the Western-Style should not be supported and people should try to preserve the mosques.

Key Quotation: “You who have chosen a course other than Islam--you do nothing for humanity. All you do is write and speak in an effort to divert our movement from its course.”

SJS3- “ISIS and the Third Wave of Jihadism

Source: Gerges, Fawaz A. “ISIS and the Third Wave of Jihadism.” Current History, vol. 113, no. 767, Dec. 2014, pp. 339-43.

Author Credentials: Fawaz A. Gerges is qualified to talk about the Middle East, especially ISIS and Jihadism because he held the Christian A. Johnson Endeavor Foundation Chair in Middle Eastern Studies and International Affairs at Sarah Lawrence College. This shows that Gerges has knowledge of the Middle East. Geres also wrote numerous books about Jihadism which means that he has a mass amount of knowledge on Jihadism. Lastly, Geres has done research in Middle Eastern Countries about topics such as Jihadist groups.

Summary: Gerges argues that ISIS is part of the third jihadist wave. Gerges also argues that ISIS will not thrive once the Syrian civil war ends. Gerges says that ISIS lacks ideas and “leave deep scars on the consciousness of Arab and Muslim youth.” In addition, ISIS wants to wreak havoc to try and impress recruits and have more people join the group. Lastly, Gerges argues that we can weaken ISIS by working with the Sunnis. Gerges says that the Sunnis have been protesting the discrimination that they have dealt with, however nobody, including the United States seem to care. This allowed ISIS to intervene with the Sunni.

Analysis: For the most part the article was very well written. Gerges brought up a variety of different points about ISIS. Gerges included many details and explanations about some of the potential reasonings for ISIS’s actions as well as how he thinks ISIS can be weakened. In particular, Gerges did a great job explaining the Sunni involvement. In the beginning of the article I did not know that the Sunnis were involved, but by the end it was very clear as to why the Sunni and Shia are involved. It would have been nice if Gerges would have included a little bit of information about how the Sunnis have been ignored, however that was not that main focus of the article. Gerges could have explained the Jihadism factor a little bit more. After reading the article several times, I was still confused about what role Jihadism played with ISIS. Overall, “ISIS and the Third Wave of Jihadism” was a well written article. I think that this author is a reliable source because of all of his knowledge of the Middle East and jihadism.

PDP3 - The Arab Israeli Conflict

PDP3 - The Arab Israeli Conflict

Abba Eban was the Israeli Ambassador to the United Nations and therefore their is going to be an Israeli bias.

The historical context is significant as it defines the Israeli bias to the conflict and does not aim to justify the other side. When the document calls for peaceful recognition of every state in the region it does not do justice to the other sides as they believe Israel unrighteously took territory from them.

Abba Eban talks about the holocaust and the death of six million jews and identifies it as the main cause for the necessity of the existence of the state of Israel.  He claims that the crisis in the middle east is perpetrated by other countries and also that they are aggressively infringing on Israels right to exist. He asserts that the main perpetrators are the Soviet Union and Arab States. Also it is said that "The Six Days War" was solely Israel defending itself and related it to historical defensive battles like Stalingrad to try to delegitimize the Soviet assertion that Israels behaviors was aggressive. Eban gives his vision for peace including access to the holy lands and calls for coexistence. In his resolution to the security council he calls for all states to be peacefully recognized. The Palestinian charter claims that anyone whose father is a Palestinian is also a Palestinian. It also aims at zionism's elimination from Palestine.

"I shall invite every peace-loving state represented here to ask itself how it would have acted on that day if it faced similar dangers."

SJS3- "Arab Israeli Conflict (1967)"

Source:  Shah, Anup. “The Middle East conflict—a brief background.” Global Issues. 30 Jul. 2006. Web. 19 Mar. 2017. <http://www.globalissues.org/article/119/the-middle-east-conflict-a-brief-background>.

Author Credentials: Shah is qualified to discuss this issue because he shows throughout the article that he knows what is going on, and the importance that others know what is happening. Shah uses quotes from that have significance to the topic, and has a lot of details.

Summary: The author does not argue one way or another and takes a neutral stand. Although he portrays the Jewish people in a negative light. He talks about them taking over the Palestine land, and how the Europeans took control over the Middle East and made decisions without regarding the countries in the Middle East. 

Analysis:  The author does not make a strong argument as this article is in favor totally of one side, but definitely portrays the Europeans and Jews in a negative light. There is sufficient amount of evidence that shows the Europeans took over matters in the Middle East, when they had no right too. The article is mainly fact, with few opinions. The author is reliable because there are a lot of facts to back up the main topic, and uses reliable sources. 

SJS3- “The Young Turks' Crime against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire”

SJS3- “The Young Turks' Crime against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire”

Source:

Klein, Janet. "The Young Turks' Crime against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire." Journal of World History, vol. 24, no. 4, 2013, p. 908+. World History In Context

Author Credentials:

Dr. Janet Klein is a part of the University of Akron History Department. Her research focuses on state-society relations, nationalism, identity, and gender dynamics, and late-Ottoman Kurdistan.

Summary:

Klein analyzes a book written by Taner Akcam on the Armenian Genocide. Klein states that Akcam’s work makes a complex case for analyzing the Armenian Genocide with respect to the important events that occurred before it within the Ottoman Empire. Akcam argues that genocide is not only the killing of people, but the dynamic process of population transfer, annihilation, and assimilation. Klein approves of Akcam’s work and commends his use of Ottoman sources as well as Armenian sources.

Analysis:

Klein mostly agrees with Ackam’s work, stating that, “Thanks to Akcam's work, the field of Armenian genocide research has indeed reached ‘the end of the beginning.’” The argument that genocide is a dynamic process rather than a singular event as the original meaning implies is presented well, as well as the perspectives of Ottoman leaders on the Armenian Genocide. The inclusion of Ottoman perspectives is important because it offers a point of view that is not seen in solely Armenian sources.

Source:
De Waal, Alex. "The Price of South Sudan's Independence." Current History: A 
     Journal of Contemporary World Affairs, vol. 114, no. 772, May 2015, pp. 
     194-96. 

Author Credentials: Alex de Waal is the Executive Director of the World Peace Foundation and a Research Professor at The Fletcher School and is considered one of the foremost experts on Sudan and the Horn of Africa. His scholarship and practice has probed many responses, in and out of Africa. He received a D.Phil. from Oxford for a thesis he made about the Darfur famine in Sudan. He was also a fellow at the Global Equity Initiative at Harvard and Program Director at the Social Science Research Council. These titles are among others that he gained while researching and helping with Africa. He also worked on several human rights organizations focused on the Horn of Africa and Sudan as well as HIV/AIDS, poverty, and governance in Africa. 

Summary: When South Sudan gained independence in 2011 they hoped that as their own independent sovereign nation, they wouldn't face the same problems they had while still a part of Sudan such as religious discrimination and being robbed of their natural resources. However, these problems have only only followed them. When South Sudan gained independence and had money to spend, much of it went to the military and the rest basically was given to corruption due to the lack of good infrastructure. Their issue was really money, not an ethnic conflict as many thought, but they had neither a steady revenue of skillful management, which put them in trouble. Eventually, leaders opposed to the ruler of South Sudan, Salva Kirr, combined forces so their factions could attempt overrule him and the corrupt government, but both sides were still cautious as to avoid civil war. Despite these efforts, with attacks that broke out among other existing conflicts, the political dispute took on military and ethnic conflicts that grew and put South Sudan's statehood in pieces. While outside forces attempted to mediate, the violence within escalated which caused other African countries to get involved on one side or the other. African leaders eventually came up with an agreement for the leaders of both sides of the civil war to temporarily sign but fighting and corruption is still nowhere near an end in South Sudan. 

Analysis: He is a reliable and qualified source because of the high esteem he is held in in regard to his focuses on Africa. The author has a fairly objective perspective in presenting the facts but also includes specific positives or negatives depending on what region or event he is talking about which allows him to get specific points across to the reader . He adequately distinguishes between facts and opinions by mostly describing the facts of the topic but also includes some of the more biased opinions of particular groups and their reactions to ongoing events in their societies. 

SJS3- "A Turkish Republic for the Civilized World"

Source: Kevin Reilly. "A Turkish Republic for the Civilized World."  World of History Vol. 2: 4th ed. 2010. Pg. 889-895.

Author Credentials:  Kevin Reilly is an acclaimed academic author and professor at universities such as Princeton, Columbia, and Rutgers. He co-founded and was the first president of the World History Association  as well as authoring and editing a significant number of reference books on world history for major organizations such as the AHA. Within the American Historical Association, he was on the Governing Council and currently specializes in immigration and how perception of race affected the trajectory of history.

Summary:  Kevin Reilly briefly summarizes the history of the Ottoman/ Turkish and explains that the  speaker, Mustafa Kemel Ataturk lead the political movement for radically changing the culture of Turkey by banning certain sects, religious headwears and clothing, all the while advocating for following the Western way of life. In the first excerpt, he briefly describes the dire state of the Ottoman Empire at the end of the first World War and the limited options they had while still maintaining their roots and how his way was the only way that made sense. In the next two, he in essence claims that the older, more traditional style of Turkish life is detrimental to the appearance of a reborn, modern state.

Analysis:  The retrospective commentary from Kevin Reilly documents the history and context of the speeches, giving some authority to the success of Kemel's plan. I think that Ataturk provides a strong argument  for his perspective, but with some obvious bias as he is pitching his idea to the lawmakers. However, Reilly gives the historical perspective, with less apparent bias. In my opinion, Reilly is a credible source while Kemel offers a passionate, but flawed argument.

PDP2 - Using "Tribe" and "Tribalism" to Misunderstand African Societies

Author Bio: David Wiley, in 2013, was in the Department of Sociology and African Studies Center at Michigan State University. David Wiley specializes in social ecology of Africa and its environment (rural and urban), the political economy of Africa and African militarization, social inequality, social movements, social stratification and religion, and internationalization of higher education. Wiley is more positively biased toward Africa because of his argument about misleading negative terms. He uses definitions to factually describe what words actually, not stereotypically or presumptuously, mean and whether or not they can truly be applied to Africa.

Date/Context: This article was written in 2013 and its content about how the use of words like "Tribe" and "Tribalism" can often be incorrect and misleading connects with many other aspects of Africa that are commonly mistaken. This is a time in society when many people are unaware to a full extent what is going on in some parts of the world who may not realize the implications of using certain terms to describe a region or society. This article describes the importance of correct terminology as to not misunderstand other peoples, especially, in this case, in Africa.

Summary: Tribe is a word with so many different connotations and definitions used in a variety of fields. Some people believe that this term should be abandoned because of the wide variety of uses that could easily cause confusion. It is also believed that the way it was used in the 19th century to describe inferior, disorganized, primitive, and less civilized peoples can not be correctly applied anymore because this was an evolutionary and racist time period. When this was used it was mostly between white governments and other groups trying to break off in which their were just differences in histories, leaderships, styles, goals, and memberships. In Western society such differences help create different ethnicities, not tribalism, as it is labeled in Africa. This misuse of words is not a small error in Africa because misconceptions in language can lead to a difference in the perception of truth. This can result in incorrect judgments of societies and their strengths by other countries. The demeaning term only leads to misunderstanding the great diversity of Africa.

Key Quotation: "Tribe is a source of misunderstanding the great diversity of rural Africa by labeling small hunting and gathering groups of less than 100 persons as a tribe as well as a far-flung, multinational Fulani trading group of millions of persons across circa 19 nations as a 'tribe.'"

SJS3 - "Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (1900-89): The Uprising of Khurdad 15, 1979"

Source:
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. "The Uprising of Khurdad 15, 1979"  Internet Modern History Sourcebook 1979.

Author Credentials:
He taught in the major Shi'ite  theological school at Qom. He was exiled for his opposition to the government of the Shah. He lived in Paris after 1978 and orchestrated the Islamic Revolution of 1979 in Iran. He became the political and religious leader until his death, in 1989.

Summary:
The author argues that the overthrowing of the Shah regime was due to Islam, and anyone who thinks otherwise is ignorant. This was at the point in history when more and more countries began to become westernized, so the author is trying to remind the reader of the roots of victory for the Muslim people. It is a fight against the western powers' and scholars' attempts to undermine the importance of Islam in the Middle East's history, a fight against ethnocentrism and orientalism. The author also argues that the people of the Middle East should not westernize themselves, and that the people of the west lead empty lives. This is a call for nationalism and a call to return to their roots, or jihad.

Analysis:
The author does make a strong argument, although it is lacking in substantial evidence in the form of fact. There are many assumptions in the text. For example, the author explains that only lower-class Muslims fought against the tyranny. This is a sweeping generalization, and most likely not true. The author's opinions and facts do seem muddled at times, and there is a heavy amount of bias, so the author may not be a reliable source, but the argument and message is strong and clear. Because this is a calling and therefore not very scientific, it does not need to have hard facts to move its readers. It only needs to invoke emotion and call to action, which it accomplishes. All in all, although the supporting content of the argument is weak, the message is powerful enough to get its point across.

PDP3 - The Ruba'iyat

Author Bio:
Omar Khayyám lived from ca. 1048 to 1131 and was a mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher known for poetry. He was born in Nishapour, Iran, one of the greatest cities of the Middle East, and born into a family of tent-makers. He wrote a treatise on algebra, and was appointed to head a commission to reform the eastern calendar, resulting in the Jalali Calendar. Khayyám risked persecution, as religious beliefs were deeply instilled in the people of that era and it was common for poets who made contradictory statements to be prosecuted. Since he does not write about any specific facts, his work in the Rubaiyat consists of philosophy, which is subjective and neither credible nor incredible. However, it was translated by Edward FitzGerald, so there may be some unreliability about the accuracy of the translation from the original text.

Historical context:
It was written in the 11th century in Iran, at the peak of classical Islamic science, philosophy, technology and literature. This would increase the shocking effect of Khayyam's opposing views at a time when the status quo was fundamentally accepted by all.

Summarize: 
Since the Rubaiyat consists of unconnected quatrains, there is no one cohesive theme. However, it does have a focus on materialism and living in the present, and many people believe that it is an attempt to reverse the dominant fascination with death, destruction, suicide, and the abstract ideas of "honor" and "revenge" that were prevalent in his society and placed above life, love, beauty, and pleasure. For example, he frequently speaks of his love for wine. This focus of secular ideas has not gone over well with the people of the Middle East, which is why the Rubaiyat is banned in many places. However, since it is a very "western" concept, it has received great love in the West. These ideas are supported mainly by making them sound appealing, through rhyme and verse. The intended audience is the general public, but these poems can appeal to scholars as well due to pieces of Khayyám's intellect and philosophy slipping into his words. Other ideas include living in the present and not dwelling in the past, and the advancement of time and fate. This piece tells us that the time and place he lived in was not living life pleasantly. Many of the people in his society spent too much time looking too far back or ahead, living on abstract ideas that supposedly gave their lives meaning. The Rubaiyat seeks to ground people, to bring them back from these ideas and help them enjoy what is in front of them, whether that be with regards to time or materials. Because this work contains very little accounts of facts in history, it can neither prove nor disprove anything in secondary sources.

Key quotation:
"XXI
Lo! some we loved, the loveliest and the best
That Time and Fate of all their Vintage prest,
Have drunk their Cup a Round or two before,
And one by one crept silently to Rest."

SJS 2: "Travels in Africa"

Source: Ibn Battuta. "Travels in Africa." Part Two: Traditional societies. 1364, pp.148-151

Author Credentials: Ibn Battuta was a Moroccan scholar and traveller best known for his treks around the Middle East, Africa, and many other Asian countries. His travels made him a great source of knowledge from his time to this day.

Summary: In the passage, Battuta travels to see the Sudanese people of the Mali empire. While on a caravan to Sudan, he describes the harsh, desert-like wilderness he and his group traversed through to reach their destination. Battuta notes that the peoples' way of living and behavior are greatly influenced by Islam, giving their faithful prayers and pilgrimages as an exmple. In light of this, the Sundanese people exhibit a very lax and non-conservative culture, which confuses him.

Analysis: Ibn Battuta writes a very informative segment on the Sudanese people of the Mali Empire. The only evidence provided in his writings are his own experiences, so the reader has no way of knowing whether or not his recordings are truthful. Many of his statements on the Sudanese people's lifestyle are influenced by his dedication to Islam, and as such his writing is not without bias. Despite this, Battuta's reputation as a highly acclaimed scholar leads the reader to believe that what he says is credible.